1. Introduction
“Christianity and Islam” is an extremely rich and nuanced text that provides a wide range of detailed accounts on landscape, architecture, and material culture in the early 20th century Mediterranean. Frederick Hasluck combines, in his field-based observation, his archaeological “eye” for material traces with an almost ethnographic sensibility towards oral history narratives, beliefs and social practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage). In this sense he gives us a rare insight into the interwoven social and material practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage) that render a place as sacredTerm associated with religious and spiritual practices performed by one or different groups in a site or place. by different ethnic groups and faith communitiesEthnic groups or faith-based communities performing religious, spiritual or secular practices in, around or in proximity to a site or place..
Hasluck makes a distinction between urban and rural sacredTerm associated with religious and spiritual practices performed by one or different groups in a site or place. sites or built and “natural” sanctuaries that he uses throughout the text, especially in the “TransferencesFrederick Hasluck uses “Transferences” as a term describing historical legacies and continuities from a certain culture or faith tradition to another through conversion, integration or transformation. Hasluck was deeply interested in “Transferences”, not only from Christianity to Islam but also from ‘paganism’ to Christianity. As his wife Margaret informs us: "he was preparing “two companion volumes on transferences from paganism to Christianity in the West and from Christianity to Islam in Syria and Palestine. Some of his work on transferences from paganism appears in his ‘ Letters on Religion and Folklore’". However, Hasluck himself was very aware of the challenges and limitations of trying to identify faith ’survivals’ or continuities: "Despite the readiness with...” section in the first Volume of “Christianity and Islam”. Using this distinction, he refers to “urban transferencesFrederick Hasluck uses “Transferences” as a term describing historical legacies and continuities from a certain culture or faith tradition to another through conversion, integration or transformation. Hasluck was deeply interested in “Transferences”, not only from Christianity to Islam but also from ‘paganism’ to Christianity. As his wife Margaret informs us: "he was preparing “two companion volumes on transferences from paganism to Christianity in the West and from Christianity to Islam in Syria and Palestine. Some of his work on transferences from paganism appears in his ‘ Letters on Religion and Folklore’". However, Hasluck himself was very aware of the challenges and limitations of trying to identify faith ’survivals’ or continuities: "Despite the readiness with...”, “transference of rural sanctuaries”, and “transference of natural sanctuaries”. He also clearly defines, in his Conclusion (p. 113) that when it comes to holy placesNamed locations mentioned by F. W Hasluck in relation to religious sites, groups and practices, monuments or citing other sources.: “these are generally towns, whose sanctity consists ultimately in an accumulation of saints’s tombs due to the long importance of the town in question as a centre of population.
An isolated sanctuary, if on a frequented road, (…) stands a greater chance of popularity than one remote from it: if the road becomes less populous, the sanctuary suffers with it.
Specifically for “natural sanctuaries” Hasluck explains that they are (p. 114): “of purely local religious importance, though curative springs, some of which fall into this category, attract for practical reasons a wider clientele.
It is clear that Hasluck views “natural sanctuaries” as rather marginal, compared to major urban centers and pilgrimage sites. He also sees, however, the potential of certain “natural” sites to attract more visitors if part of a pilgrimage route or if associated with certain practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage) or purposes like healing. In other words, the more a rural or “natural” site is connected to routes, networks and practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage), the more likely it is that its sanctity escapes a local or marginal importance.
We tried to trace these associations or connections of mostly “natural sanctuaries” as potential “sanctity markers” through text analysis.
2. Visualizations
We used two collocationCollocation is defined as "the act or result of placing or arranging together; specifically : a noticeable arrangement or conjoining of linguistic elements (as words)". analysis networks to identify “neighbor” terms associated with certain “key terms”. “Key terms” and “neighbor” terms are words that co-occur in the text and could potentially help us semantically map the ways in which sanctity is anchored to certain placesNamed locations mentioned by F. W Hasluck in relation to religious sites, groups and practices, monuments or citing other sources. with certain features. “Key terms” were selected based on their frequency in the text and semantic association to what Hasluck defines as rural or “natural” sanctuaries.
The first network maps the key terms “stone”, “water” and “tree” in relation to “neighbors” that appear at least twice in proximity to the key term. The size of nodes represents the frequencies of co-occurrence.
Collocation
Collocation is defined as "the act or result of placing or arranging together; specifically : a noticeable arrangement or conjoining of linguistic elements (as words)". network 1
It is clear that a dense network, with a higher number of connections is built around key term “stone”, followed by “water” and “tree”. This has to do with the higher frequency of the term in the text, but it also highlights the fact that “stone” is semantically linked to a diversity of other terms across the domains of both the built and “natural” environment. In this sense, a stone can be “round”, “black” or “natural” as part of the landscape, but at the same time “ancient”, “inscribed” or “columnar”, as part of a structure.
The density of the network makes it hard to highlight unique associations or clear clusters but it enables us to map a field of “sanctity” through certain semantic domains. By grouping “neighbors” together, we defined the following semantic categories:
- place and location: keui (koy), Constantinople, further, Jerusalem, above, Cairo, placed, Rhodes, discovered, below, Mecca.
- religious and material practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage): venerated, inscribed, pierced, incubation, patients, cured, veneration.
- figures and communitiesEthnic groups or faith-based communities performing religious, spiritual or secular practices in, around or in proximity to a site or place.: Noah, Elias, dervishes, arab, christian, George
- animals: snake, dragon (karstic landscapes), fish.
- built/environment material culture: pillar, tomb, church, castle, tower
- speculation: probably, supposed, history, legend (that has to do with location as well but also with storytelling).
- association: connexion, connected.
- sanctity / transcendental markers: spirit, sacredTerm associated with religious and spiritual practices performed by one or different groups in a site or place., miraculous, medicinal, magic, talisman, saints, legend, oracle.
We were also able to identify some terms that are neighbors to all three key terms (“stone”, “water”, “tree”): “tomb”, “sacredTerm associated with religious and spiritual practices performed by one or different groups in a site or place.”, “tekkeTekkes: dervish monasteries, religious communities (built complexes), religious complexes. Source: Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online.”, “legend”, “miraculous”.
For the second collocationCollocation is defined as "the act or result of placing or arranging together; specifically : a noticeable arrangement or conjoining of linguistic elements (as words)". network we used a slightly different approach. We used a higher number of key terms, including certain variations (e.g. singular and plural) and a higher threshold of co-occurrence (“neighbors” appear at least five times close to the key term) hoping to isolate unique, strong associations and well-defined clusters. The key terms we used were: “spring” and “springs”, “water” and “waters”, “tree” “trees”, “hill”, “cave”, “mountain” and “mountains”, and, finally, “stone” and “stones”.
Collocation
Collocation is defined as "the act or result of placing or arranging together; specifically : a noticeable arrangement or conjoining of linguistic elements (as words)". network 2
The network produced represents some rather clear patterns. Two isolated clusters around “hill” and “waters” refer to the specificity of these two terms, the latter reflecting a close connection to a certain ritual (“the blessing of waters”, as part of the Eastern Orthodox tradition). “Stone” and “stones” lie at the core of more closely connected terms, while “spring(s)”, “tree(s)” and “mountain(s)” rather lie at the periphery of loosely connected terms. It is quite clear that while some connections are obvious or insignificant (e.g. “spring” > “water”, “cold”, “clear”), others indicate stronger or even unique associations that reflect (e.g. “cave” > “sleepers”, “dragon”, “stones” > “venerated”, “inscribed”) long established links of certain landscape features to certain narratives or religious practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage). “Stones” and “cave” are good examples representing a link between the sanctity of a site and the density of its associations with stories or practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage).
Conclusion
Throughout Hasluck’s text, the sanctity of rural or “natural” placesNamed locations mentioned by F. W Hasluck in relation to religious sites, groups and practices, monuments or citing other sources. tends to be considered as of rather local importance, only elevated through wider routes, networks or associated practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage). It is a sanctity that is not randomly or arbitrarily attributed to placesNamed locations mentioned by F. W Hasluck in relation to religious sites, groups and practices, monuments or citing other sources., but rather, woven through long established narratives and traditions or materially inscribed through certain practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage). What seems to resonate through the text is that the sacredness and significance of these sites is both story-driven and materially specific. What surfaces from text analysis is a “repertoire of sanctity markers” that locals would use to anchor value and meaning to certain placesNamed locations mentioned by F. W Hasluck in relation to religious sites, groups and practices, monuments or citing other sources., and continuously use them and venerate them. This reflects both cultural practicesSecular or religious uses of a site or place (e.g. ritual, pilgrimage) in this particular historical moment, but also showcases Hasluck’s own mode of inquiry. As Shankland reminds us: “ for Hasluck material culture and the built environment is always (…) embedded within a multiple social context.” (Shankland vol.3.p. 20).